NON-STANDARDIZED TESTS

 

   NON-STANDARDIZED TESTS

OBSERVATION

 The most common method used for getting information about the various things around us, is to observe those things and also the various processes related to those things.

  But it must be kept in mind that observation is not just seeing things but it is carefully watching the things and trying to   understand them in depth, in order to get some information about them.  Observations sometimes act scientifically, when used by the researchers in various research works but it should be noted that all observations are not scientific in nature.

q  According to Oxford Concise Dictionary, observation means ‘accurate watching, noting the phenomenon by which they occur in the nature with regard to the cause and effect of mutual relations.’

FEATURES OF OBSERVATION 

1. Eye Observation:

Ø  In an accurate sense, observation involves the use of the eyes rather than the use of the ears and the voice.

Ø  An experienced worker never believes in hearsay he only trusts if he has observed that with his own eyes or if the report is a firsthand evidence of his eyes.

2. Aim:

Ø  Observations which act on scientific grounds are brought in use by the scientists or the researchers with some or the other aim to achieve something.

Ø  Such scientists make their observations in a very minute and adetailed manner which helps them in achieving specific goals.

Ø  These goals can include discovery of something, verification of the hypothesis etc.

3. Planning:

The value of an observation in an operation is only if it is done properly – in a planned manner as, if  it is done in a careless sense then the chance of making such an observation again may come or not.

4. Recording:

Ø  The various operations that we perform and the results that we obtain should be remembered but a known fact is that memory is very deceptive in nature.

Ø  With the passage of time things tend to get out of mind, so it is very important to keep a record of such activities.

Ø  One very common method to keep a track of these activities is to write down the various impressions, but now a days a tape or in some cases a video camera is used for the recording purposes.

5. Physical and mental activity:

Ø  Sense organs have a very critical role to play in the observation process.

Ø  During the observation researcher or an investigator has to use his sense organs for seeing and hearing things and then has to keep in mind the whole set of observations for an in depth analysis of the matter later on.

6. Exactness:

Ø  Observation should be based on standardized tools of research which makes an observation exact in its nature of working.

7. Direct study:

Ø  Observation is a very vital scientific method that helps a lot in the collection of the primary information that is reliable in nature in which direct study of the situation is involved.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION

1. Observation is specific and not haphazard looking around for general impression.
2. Scientific observation of behaviour is systematic but not a chance dropping in on a situation.
3. Observation is quantitative recording of the number of instances where in certain types of behaviour are noted.
4. Observation is recorded immediately and notes are made promptly rather than trusting them to memory.
5. Observation is expected to be done by someone trained to do such work.
6. Observational results can be checked and substantiated to ascertain reliability and validity.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

1. Very direct method for collecting data or information – best for the study of human behavior.
2. Data collected is very accurate in nature and also very reliable.
3.  Improves precision of the research results.
4. Problem of depending on respondents is decreased.
5.  Helps in understanding the verbal response more efficiently.
6. By using good and modern gadgets – observations can be made continuously and also for a larger duration of time period.
7. Observation is less demanding in nature, which makes it less bias in working abilities.
8. By observation, one can identify a problem by making an in-depth analysis of the problems.

DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION 

1. Problems of the past cannot be studied by means of observation.
2. Having no other option, one has to depend on the documents available.
3. Observations like the controlled observations require some especial instruments or tools for effective working, which are very much costly.
4. Attitudes cannot be studied with the help of observations.
5. Sampling cannot be brought into use.
6. Observation involves a lot of time as one has to wait for an event to happen to study that particular event.
7. The actual presence of the observer himself Vis a Vis (face to face) the event to occur is almost unknown, which acts as a major disadvantage of observation.

SUGGESTIONS TO HELP MAKE VALID OBSERVATIONS

1. Plan in advance what is to be observed.
2. The observer must be cognizant of sampling errors. There should be frequent, short observation distributed over a period of several weeks and at different times of the day.
3. Co-ordinate the observations with your teaching. Otherwise, there is great danger that invalid observations will result.
4.  Record and summarize the observation immediately after it has occurred. More important, however, is the fact that when pupils know they are being observed, their resultant behaviour maybe atypical.
5. Make no interpretations concerning the behaviour until later on. Otherwise, it may interfere with the objectivity of gathering observational data.
6. Prepare some sort of list, guide or form to help make the observation process objective and systematic.

ANECDOTAL RECORDS

Ø  Anecdotal observation is directly observed occurrences that are clearly and concisely written in a nonjudgmental manner in the past tense.

Ø  A journalist approach is used when writing anecdotal records.

Ø  This is a factual account of a single incident answering the who, what, where, when and how of the incident.

Ø  Anecdotal records can be made systematically after each lesson, at the end of the day, or less frequently such as at the end of a unit.

Ø  Of course, these observations should be dated, identified, and organized around previously identified focuses of instruction. 

Guidelines for writing Anecdotal Records

1. Start with a statement; setting date, time of day, name and age of child.
2. Describe the child’s behaviour not what you think of the behaviours.
3. Use details of the child’s actions and comments, include other’s responses.

The purpose of anecdotal notes is to:

1. Provide information regarding a student's development over a period of time.

2. Provide ongoing records about individual instructional needs.

3. Capture observations of significant behaviours that might otherwise be lost.

4. Provide ongoing documentation of learning that may be shared with students, parents and teachers.

Tips for Establishing and Maintaining Anecdotal Notes

1. Keep a binder with a separate page for each student.
2. Record observations using a clipboard and sticky notes.
3. Write the date and the student’s name on each sticky note. Following the note taking, place individual sticky notes on the page reserved for that student in the binder.
4. Keep a binder with dividers for each student and blank pages to jot down notes. The pages may be divided into three columns: Date, Observation and Action Plan.
5. Keep a class list in the front of the binder and check off each student's name as anecdotal notes are added to their section of the binder. This provides a quick reference of the students you have observed and how frequently you have observed them.
6. Keep notes brief and focused (usually no more than a few sentences or phrases).
7.  Note the context and any comments or questions for follow-up.
8. Keep comments objective. Make specific comments about student strengths, especially after several observations have been recorded and a pattern has been observed.
9. Record as the observations are being made, or as soon after as possible, so recollections will be accurate.
10.  Record comments regularly, if possible.
11.  Record at different times and during different activities to develop a balanced profile of student mathematics learning.
12. Review records frequently to ensure that notes are being made on each student regularly and summarize information related to trends in students’ learning.
13. Share anecdotal notes with students and parents at conferences.

CASE STUDY

q  The case study is an old method, which has been re-discovered and adapted to the complex process of modern counselling.

Ø  Case study means systematic, complete and intensive study of the pupil - his family background, his physical, social, emotional and intellectual environment.

Ø  In the words of Ruth Strang “The case study or history is a synthesis and interpretation of information about a person and his relationship to his environment collected by means of many techniques.

Ø  Psychologist, in preparing a case study the information is collected from the following sources:

1. Preliminary Information:

Ø  Name, age, sex, parent’s age, education, occupation, income, number of children, social status etc.

2.  Past History:

Ø  Condition of mother during pregnancy, any incident, child’s development after birth, physical, mental, emotional, social- illness,

   relation between parents and other members of the family, achievement of the child, parent’s death, birth order etc.

3.  Present Condition:

     The information may be collected under the following heads:

          (i) Physical: Results of medical examination of any diseases.

          (ii) Medical: I.Q., special abilities, general intelligence

          Iii) Social: House environment, friends and their types,

               social environment in School, home and Neighborhood.

        (iv) Emotional: Anxiety, fear, temperament, attitude etc.

        (v) Interest: Personal, social, vocational and special

             aptitude.

         (vi) School Achievement: Position in school, failure, special

              achievement etc.

STEPS INVOLVED IN CASE STUDY:

The following steps are followed in case study:

1. Location of the case

2. Formulation of hypotheses

3. Collection of data from pupils, parents, friends, teachers, headmaster and community at large.

4. Analysis of data i.e. identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial treatment

5. Removing the causes i.e. application of remedial or adjustment measures.

6. Follow up of the case to determine the effectiveness of remedial or adjust mental measure applied.

TYPES OF CASES:

(i) Problematic children

(ii) Delinquent children

(iii) Backward Children or slow learner

(iv) Maladjusted children

(v) Gifted Children

(vi) Children with exceptional talent in a particular skill,

(vii) Children with educational difficulty

(viii) Children with vocational difficulty

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CASE STUDY:

The following are the characteristics of a good case study:

(i) Completeness of data

(ii) Continuity of data

(iii) Validity of data

(iv) Confidential recording of data

(v) Scientific synthesis and analysis of data

ADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY:

1. Intensive Study: Case study method is responsible for intensive study of a unit. It is the investigation and exploration of an event thoroughly and deeply.

2.No sampling: It studies a social unit in its entire perspectives. It means there is no sampling in case study method.

3.Continuous Analysis: It is valuable in analyzing continuously the life of a social unit to dig out the facts.

4.Hypothesis formulation: This method is useful for formulation of   hypothesis for further study.

5.Comparisons: It compares different type of facts about the study of a unit.

6.Increase in knowledge: It gives the analytical power of a person to increase knowledge about a social phenomenon.

7.Generalization of data: Case study method provides grounds for generalization of data for illustrating statistical findings.

8.Comprehensive: It is comprehensive method of data collection in   social research.

9.Locate Deviant Cases: The deviant cases are these units which behave against the proposed hypothesis. So, it locates these deviant cases.   The tendency is to ignore them but are important for scientific study.

10.Forming Questionnaire or Schedule: Through case study method we

   can formulate and develop a questionnaire and schedule.

LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDY:

The following are the limitations of Case Study

1. It is a ‘subjective’ technique. A person who prepares case history may project his own problems, plans, ideas, attitudes, values and the like into the report
2.  It is very time-consuming technique
3.  It is difficult to prepare case history. Parents and teachers etc. may not cooperate
4. We need experts and trained persons preparing case history.  Experts are generally not available
5.  It is very difficult to interpret the results objectively In spite of these limitations case study is an important and useful technique for collection of data in guidance programme.

CUMULATIVE RECORD

Ø  A Cumulative Record Card is that which contains the results of different assessment and judgments held from time to time during the course of study of a student or pupil.

Ø   Generally, it covers three consecutive years.

Ø   It contains information regarding all aspects of life of the child or educed-physical, mental, social, moral and psychological.

Ø  It seeks to give as comprehensive picture as possible of the personality of a child.

Ø   Basically, a Cumulative Record Card is a document in which it is recorded cumulatively useful and reliable information about a particular pupil or student at one place.
Definitions of Cumulative Record:

1. Bonney and Hampleman:

“Cumulative records consist of all data about an individual pupil which a school con­siders important enough to collect and record, usually in some organized way, for safe keeping from year to year.”

2. Arthur Jones:

    Cumulative record is defined as “a permanent record of a student which is kept up-to-date by school, it is his educational history with informa­tion about his school achievement, attendance, health, test scores and similar pertinent data.”

3. Ben Morris:

“A record card is only a tool and unless a system of records can impress the majority of teachers as a sensible and useful device which it is within their powers of use, it is likely to be waste of public time and money to install it.”

Characteristics of Cumulative Record Card:

1. The cumulative record is a useful and permanent record which includes various information’s about the student.
2.  It is an up-to-date record which is maintained by teachers including the latest information’s about student.
3.  It is a complete record which includes student’s educational progress covering student’s past achievement and present educational standard.
4.  It is a comprehensive record as it embodies all the information’s about the students such as attendance, health, test, co-curricular activities, psychological data and educational data etc.
5. It can be called as continuous record as it includes data about the student even starting from kindergarten level to the end of school education.
6. It invites data about the students which should be valid, authentic, reliable, objective, usable and pertinent in nature.

7. A separate file is maintained in case of confidential information collected about the students.
8. The needed information may be given but not the card itself if in certain cases any information is required by concerned guidance personnel or well-wishers of student for the purpose of his development.

9. The cumulative record can be recognized as Cumulative Record Folder (CRF) if the cumulative record is kept together in a folder.
10. If the cumulative record is kept properly in an envelope, it can be called and recognized as Cumulative Record Envelope (CRE).
11.  The pages of cumulative record are not open for all and it is confidential. But in certain specific cases it may be disclosed.
12.  It is transferable from one school to another with students.

Items Included in a Cumulative Record:

Personal:

Name:

Date of birth:

Evidence of birth:

Place of birth:

Sex:

Colour of race:

Residence of pupil and/or parents.

Home and Community:

Names of parents or guardians:

Occupation of parents or guardians:

Are parents alive or deceased?

Rating of the home environment and/or economic status:

With whom does pupil live?

Birth place of parents:

Language spoken in home:

Material status:

Number of siblings, older and younger:

Scholarships:

School marks by years and subject

Special reports of failure

Record of reading

Rank in graduating class (with number in class)

Test Scores and Ratings:

General intelligence test scores

Achievement test scores

Other test scores

Personality ratings.

School Attendance:

Days present or absent each year

Records of schools ended, with dates

Health:

(The following types of items are desirable if a school has a health programme in which physicians and nurses are apart)

Complete health record to be filled in by physician nurse.

ü  Record of physical disabilities

ü  Vaccination record

ü  Disease census

(If a physician or nurse is not available for examining, a rating of the health of the pupils may be made by the teacher the type of rating depending upon the extent of the education of the teacher is health matters)

Basic Principles that Should Govern the   Maintenance of the CRC:

1. Accurate

2. Complete

3. Comprehensive

4. Objective

5. Usable

6. Valid

Uses of Cumulative Record Card:

1. The CRC is useful for guidance worker and counsellor as it provides a comprehensive, objective picture about the student including his strength and weaknesses.
2. The CRC is useful for guidance counsellor to help pupil in educational achievement, vocational choice and personal progress so far adjustment is concerned.
3. The CRC is useful for headmaster/principal to ascertain the pupil’s performances in different subjects and his limitations.
4. The CRC is useful for parents to provide special privileges to make up the deficiencies what lie in case of his child.
5. The CRC is useful for teachers to know the students and his progress and weaknesses at a glance.
6. The CRC does not give chance for overlapping of data collected by different teachers about the students.
7. The CRC is useful in making case study about the students.
8. The CRC is useful for the students for the vocational purposes.

Limitations of Cumulative Record Card:

1. The entire data is of little use if they are not collected properly objectively and accurately.
2. The purpose of CRC is not served if it is not maintained secretly and confidentially.
3. Sometimes the information’s and its interpretations of CRC becomes confusing as the information’s are collected by different teachers.
4.  The CRC needs much money to come to light which is not possible in the part of school to spend on this head.
5. The maintenance of CRC is a hard some job like clerical work in the part of teachers.
6.  It is a lengthy process which needs much time to be worked out.

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

Ø  An autobiography is a description of an individual in his/her own words.

Ø  As a guidance technique for studying the individual, it gives valuable information about the individual’s interest, abilities, personal history, hopes, ambitions, likes, dislikes, etc.

Autobiography in counselling

Ø  The autobiography is a person’s own written report of his or her life, and as such may provide insight into the “inner person”- individuals’ experiences and knowledge about themselves.                                          --(Shertzer & Stone,1976).

Ø  An autobiography is therefore an introspective report of one’s own experiences.

Importance of Autobiography

Ø  Autobiographies are also important because they allow other people in similar circumstances realize that they are not alone.

Ø  They can be inspiring for those who are facing problems in their lives.

Ø  For the author, writing the autobiography allows them to heal as they express their feelings and options.

INTERVIEW

Ø  It is one of the important techniques in counselling.

Ø  Ruth strong describes the interview as the heart of the counselling process to which other techniques are contributory.

Ø  In the words of Erickson. “A counselling interview is a person-to-person relationship in which one individual with problems and needs turns to another person for assistance.”

Ø   The essential feature of the interview is a dynamic face-to face relationship in which the counselee is helped to develop insights that lead to self-realization.

1. According to Gary Dessler, “An interview is a procedure designed to obtain information from a person’s oral response to oral inquiries.”
2. According to Thill and Bovee, “An interview is any planed conversation with   specific purpose involving two or more people”.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE INTERVIEWING

Below are given some guidelines, if observed, can make interview more effective:

1. The interview should have a definite time schedule known to both the interviewers and the interviewee.
2. Interview should be conducted by the competent, trained and experienced interviewers.
3. The interviewers should be supplied with specific set of guidelines for conducting interview.
4. The interviewers should ensure an element of privacy for the    interviewee.
5.  A resume for all the candidates to be interviewed should be prepared and the same be made available to the interviewers before   the interview starts.
6.  The interview should not end abruptly but it should come to close tactfully providing satisfaction to the interviewee.
7.  The interviewers should show their sensitivity to the interviewee’s sentiments and also sympathetic attitude to him/her.
8. The interviewers should also evince emotional maturity and a stable personality during the interview session.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

1. Structured Interview

Ø  This is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).

Ø  The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible).

Ø  These are based on structured, Closed-ended questions.

2.Unstructured Interview

Ø  These are sometimes referred to as ‘discovery interviews’ & are more like a ‘guided conservation’ than a strict structured interview.

Ø  They are sometimes called informal interviews.

Ø  An interview schedule might not be used, and even if one is used, they will contain Open-ended questions that can be asked in any order.

Ø  Some questions might be added/missed as the interview progress.

SOCIOMETRIC TECHNIQUE

Sociometry: The study of relationship within a group of people.

q  It is a quantitative method for measuring social relationships.

q  Sociometry is the study of interpersonal relationship between people in a group.

Ø  An Austrian sociologist J. L. Moreno devised a method of measuring social relationship among members of the group.

Ø  It is a method of discovering a analyzing patterns of friendship with a group-setting.

Ø  It is a study of social relationship in the classroom.

Ø  It is an attempt to know how feelings are transmitted among class members.

Ø  It affords a basis for organizing sub-groups, which will work harmoniously and productively.

Ø  It provides clues to the reasons for behavour problems.

Ø  It offers a means to improve human relations.

Sociometric techniques:

1.Sociogram.

2.Sociometric matrices.

3.Guess who technique

4.Social distance scale.

The Importance and functions of Sociometry

1. It enables us to learn about the dynamics and evaluate socialization levels of students after some social activities and their effects on reaching the intended goal.
2. It helps school administration, teachers and counselling department by providing detailed information about the general structure and the social relationships of the group by preparing social plans and programmes to develop them in a better way and to find solutions to the problems.
3. After applying these regulations, groups can be re-constructed to increase efficiency in

               their performance.
Purpose of applying sociometry

1. To learn the interaction and the structure of a group.
2. To discover where exactly an individual exists in that group.
3. To elicit social relationship and the organization type of a group through analyzing attitude and   aptitudes of group members among each other.
4. To identify sub-group, leaders and cliques of a group.
5. To obtain objective information about the real structure of a group and group integrity.
6. Measurement of relatedness.
7.  Assessment of behavior within group.
8. To measure group characteristic such as cohesiveness, morale,bonding etc. 
9.  Improving communication.
10. To show the patterns of how individual associate with each other when acting as a group towards a specified end or goal.

Steps of Sociometry

Ø  There are 8 steps to be followed for a sociometric intervention in an organization,

1.Identify the group to be studied.

2.Develop the criterion.

3.Establish rapport/warm up.

4.Gather sociometric data.

5.Analyze and interpret data.

6.Feedback data   a) To individual

                                    b) In a group setting.

    7.  Develop and implement action plans.

    8.  Post-test (Options)

Uses of Sociometric technique

Ø  The sociometric technique has the following uses in guidance programme.

1. By studying the choice of students through sociometric technique, the teacher can determine the nature and degree of social relationship existing among the students.
2. It is useful in identifying those who are isolated, the one who is not preferred by any other individual.
3. It is also useful for identifying those who are liked by many others and who can be better leader of the group. By working with them guidance can be provided.
4. Sociometric technique is more useful with small groups. The position or status of the individual is determined on the basis of some particular criterion.
5. It is a simple, economical and natural method of observational and data collection.
6. Sociometric methods are used whenever human actions like choosing, influencing, domination and communicating in group situations are involved.
7. The can be employed in a wide variety of research in the laboratory as well as in the field.
8.  They can be used to discover checks in group communication and influence channels, patterns of cohesiveness and connectedness and so on.

Limitations of Sociometric technique

q  In-spite of having the above merits or uses of this non-testing devices, it is criticized in the following grounds,

1. A data of sociometric tests seem so different from other kind of data.
2. The investigator or counsellors find it difficult to think of sociometric measurements of individual.
3. The rating of one person by others is an old practice.
4. There are certain traits or qualities that are very difficult to be measured and if at all they are measured through observations or other tools, the measurement may not be accurate and free from subjectivity.