Standardized tests

Standardized tests

Use of psychological tests:

A psychological test has been defined in varied ways.

1)      According to Anastasi, it “is essentially an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour.”

2)      Freeman writes, “A psychological test is a standardized instrument designed to measure objectively one or more aspects of a total personality by means of samples of verbal or non-verbal response, or by means of other behaviour.”

        Psychologists are of the opinion that a psychological test is a pattern of stimuli selected and organized to elicit responses which will reveal certain psychological characteristics in the person who makes them the observation in a psychological test are made upon a small but carefully chosen sample of an individual’s behaviour. In this respect, the psychologist proceeds in much the same way as the chemist who tests the supply of water by using one or more samples of it.

         For example, the psychologist who wishes to test the extent of a student’s mechanical Comprehension, examines his performance with a representative set of problems. The diagnostic or predictive value of a psychological test depends upon the degree to which it serves as an indicator of a relatively broad and significant area of behaviour. It is obvious that a psychological test is the quantitative measurement of the various aspects of behaviour of the individual for making generalized statements about the total performance and behaviour.

A good psychological test must possess the following essential characteristics:–

(i) Validity

(ii) Reliability

(iii) Objectivity

(iv) Standardization

(v) Norms

(vi) Simplicity

(vii) Economy

(viii) Interesting

Counsellor’s Use of Psychological Tests

The counsellor may use the tests to:

1. Secure accurate and reliable information about each student’s abilities, interests and adjustment problems in order to give him guidance and counselling.

2. Make use of test results for further performance through improved basis for prediction regarding the likelihood of success in activities for which prospective performance can be measured;

3. Help students arrive at decisions basic to plan their educational and vocational future;

4. Diagnose student’s problems like social adjustment, growth and development or academic deficiencies and determining plans for their amelioration; and

5. Help them evaluate the outcome of guidance and counselling and plan further remedial programme.

The usefulness of psychological tests depends upon their proper implementation, which implies proper selection, careful administration, objective scoring and sensible interpretation.

ACHIEVEMENT TEST:

    Achievement tests are the most frequently used evaluation tools in the educational setting belonging to the paper and pencil category.

     The term achievement refers to the acquisition of all the behavioural changes belonging to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

     It is an instrument designed to measure relative accomplishment in the specified areas of learning.

     Ebel defines” Achievement test is one designed to measure students group of somebody of knowledge or is proficiency in certain skills.

     Freeeman defines test of Educational achievement as “designed to measure knowledge, understanding, and skills in a specified subject or group of subject”.

Characteristics of a good test

Test preparation activities which promote quality, long-term learning are appropriate, even essential. Good test-taking skills and appropriate content learning can reduce the likelihood that extraneous factors will influence students’ test scores. The various characteristics of a good test are:

§  It can be tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and discriminating power.

§  Directly related to the educational objectives.

§  It should possess description of measure behavior in realistic and practical terms.

§  Contains a sufficient number of test items for each measured behavior; concerned with important and useful matter; comprehensive, brief, precise and clear.

§  It should be divided into different knowledge and skills according to behavior to be measured.

§  Standardized the items and made instructions clear so that different users can utilize it.

§  Rules and norms have to be developed so that various age groups can use at various levels.

§  It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test.

§  A test manual has to be prepared, which can act as a guide for administering and scoring.

Need for Achievement test:

1.      To best the understanding of the student about the concept, principles, laws and theories of a subject achievement tests are needed.

2.      It is necessary to know the level of knowledge, understanding, application and skill of the student.

3.      To test the basic knowledge of the student regarding the subject.

4.      To identify students of maximum and minimum level achievements to provide proper guidance to them.

           Functions of Achievement tests:

1)  Achievement tests are frequently employed to check and attainment of minimum performance of                    students.

 2) They are important tools in counseling. They are helpful in assigning grades.

 3) They also constitute an important feature of remedial training programme.

 4) For all types of learners, the periodic Performance of students.

 5) It helps in the selection of the student they are helpful in the placement and Classification.

  6) For all types of learners, the periodic administration of well-constructed and properly

     Chosen achievement test serves to create love in learning.

 7) Achievement tests are employed as aids in the improvement of instructional techniques and the     

      revision of curriculum content.

STRENGTH OF ACHIEVEMENT TESTS:

1.      They are valid measure of achievement.

2.      They are reliable measuring instruments because of their objectivity.

3.      They are objectively and accurately scored.

4.      They are easy to administer.

5.      Because of frequent requisitions, they are improved at intervals.

6.      They are provided with norms, which enable the teacher to compare individual or groups of individuals or even schools.

WEAKNESSES OF ACHIEVEMENT TESTS:

1.      They lead to undesirable study habits because students try to memorize bits of information with no regard to logical sequence and reasoning of facts.

2.      They encourage uncritical thinking because they provide no score for elaboration in meaning.

3.      Miss-interpretation of results may lead to erroneous conclusions about individuals.

4.      Many important and significant aims of education can’t be measured, if items are restricted to factual information.

ESTABLISHING CLASSROOM ACHIEVEMENT TEST VALIDITY:

         For establishing the validity of teacher-made achievement test in any subject, the following criteria’s may be adopted:-

1.      Use objective as a basis for question development.

2.      Use accepted question development principles.

3.      If multiple behaviours are being sampled, they should be in proper proportion.

4.      Extraneous sources of influence on test responses need to  be eliminated or controlled.

5.      Extraneous sources of distraction during test administration must be controlled.

6.      Verify correctness, appropriateness, and accuracy of answers to items and scoring of tasks.

7.      Assessment materials must be appropriate to the level of functioning and experience.

8.      Check the reliability of the measures used.

9.      Where possible, check test scores against external criteria.

10.  Test items that are related to change during instruction should be retained for future use.

11.  Use the most appropriate format.

INTELLIGENCE TEST

       Intelligence test: A questionnaire or series of exercises designed to measureintelligence. There are many types of intelligence tests, and they may measure learning and/or ability in a wide variety of areas and skills. Scores may be presented as an IQ (intelligence quotient), as a mental age, or on a scale.

A test designed to measure the ability to think and reason rather than acquired knowledge.

IQ tests that measure intelligence also include:

·         Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales.

·         Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities.

·         Raven's Progressive Matrices.

·         Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

·         Cattell Culture Fair III.

·         Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales.

Uses of Intelligence Test:

1. Classification or Grouping pupils for school work:

• A teacher can use the intelligence tests together with all other information available about the child to place him with others of his ability in smaller groups, the composition of which will vary from subject to subject and from time to time. Students may be classified not according to C.A. but M.A.

2. For diagnosing disabilities in school subjects:

• We can compare the score representing in a school subject and the mental age and find the retardation in the subject.

3. For Determining the optimum level of work:

• The primary aim of education is to assist each child to make the best possible use of all his capacities. It is a general measure of a pupil’s capacity to succeed in his school work. The mental age gives the mental level at which a child can be expected to work most efficiently in academic subjects.

4. Identification of intellectual deviations:

• It is a problem to find who is bright and who is dull. This is to be found, otherwise a teacher may force adult child to do what is beyond his capacity, or fail to assist the gifted to make use of his exceptionally great capacity. So the extreme cases are to be discovered.
• The very dull child is likely to be recognised sooner or later as also the gifted. One of the most important problems is giving education coping with mentally defective and identifying and cultivating the potential capacity for leadership which gifted children have.

5. Educational and Vocational guidance:

• The fact that intelligence is positively related to vocational competence and to attainments in college work has definite practical implications. The educational or vocational counsellor can use the score on the intelligence test along with other data to predict a pupil’s success in college or in many vocations. Though vocational success depends upon other factors as well: health, persistence, interest and aptitudes, but intelligence is a potent factor.

6. Estimating the range of abilities in a class:

• The teacher can note the range of ability in the class. A group may contain neither very bright, nor very dull. In others the range may be very large. This gives teacher a difficult task in adjusting assignments, methods of instruction. Achievements tests are, therefore, supplemented by intelligence tests to find the range.

7. Determining the level of ability:

• In a class or school, the abilities of different teachers can be appraised in terms of the average attainments of their respective classes when these are made equal in the level of intelligence. Similarly comparisons of schools can be made only when the levels of ability of the students of the two schools are also determined.

8. Measuring special abilities:

• Aptitude tests can predict the ability to achieve in music, art and various mechanical and social lines.

9. Predicting success in particular Academic Subjects:

• Readiness and prognoses tests have been designed to give a high prediction of success in specific subjects, and provide useful basis for the selection of courses. Intelligence tests do not help here much, as there is no fair degree of correlation between various subjects and I.Q.

10. Diagnosing Subject-Matter Difficulties:

• At the elementary school level when a child has little choice of subjects, the readiness test is valuable as a diagnosis. It gives the teacher information about the areas in which the child needs more training.

11. Combination of all informates for Educational Guidance:

• The teacher and counsellor should get as much information as possible about the pupil. The prognosis test will be very valuable in predicting success in particular subjects, and when combined with intelligence test will be even more effective. The use of achievement test will increase the reliability of the prediction.

12. Research:

• Intelligence test results can be pooled and utilised for research purposes.

13. Selection:

• In the school children are chosen for various purposes and activities through intelligence tests.

14. Guidance and Organisation of Learning activity.

APTITUDE TESTS

»         It is usually asserted that next to intelligence, aptitudes are related to professional and vocational success of an individual. They can fairly predict success in the course of study or career.

Defining Aptitude

1. Aptitude has been defined as a measure of the probability of the success of an individual, with training, in a certain type of situation - a job, in school, or in such activities as playing the violin or learning a language. (Jones)
2. According to Traxler “Aptitude is a present condition which is indicative of an Individual’s potentialities for the future.”
3. In the words of Bingham “Aptitude is a condition or set of characteristics regarded as symptomatic of an individual’s ability to acquire with training some usually specified Knowledge, skill or set of responses, such as the ability to speak language, to produce Music”.

Characteristics of an Aptitude

Super thinks and aptitude in terms of four characteristics:

1. Specificity

2. Unitary composition

3. Facilitation of learning activity or type of activity

4. Constancy

Assumptions regarding Concept of Aptitude,

Bingham states that the concept of aptitude rests upon three assumptions:

1. An individual’s potentialities are not equally strong

2. Individuals differ from one another in their potentialities

3. Many of these differences are stable.

Use of Aptitude Tests in Guidance

1. These are used for purpose of guidance in selecting subjects for studying, for use to help the students to select the profession or occupation of his choice.
2.  Employers can use it for making selection of his employees.
3. Different aptitude tests can be used in admitting candidates for different professional trainings such as Law, Medicine, and Engineering etc.

INTEREST INVENTORY TEST

Ø  An interest inventory is a testing instrument designed for the purpose of measuring and evaluating the level of an individual’s interest in, or preference for, a variety of activities; also known as interest test.

Ø  A test that determines a person’s preferences for specific fields or activities.

Ø   An interest inventory is a testing instrument designed for the purpose of measuring and evaluating the level of an individual’s interest in, or preference for, a variety of activities; also known as interest test.

Purpose of Interest inventory

Interest testing is done to achieve some purpose i.e.

1. To provide teachers and counselors with information regarding the student’s preference and aversions which will help them acquire better understanding of students and their problems.
2. To help the testes to identify and clarify their interests in terms of the demands of varied courses and careers and choose work and experiences consistent with their interests.
3. To enable teachers, counselors and parents to know the kinds and intensity of the test interests and assist him to prepare is educational and vocational plans consistent with their interests.
4. To help channelize the energies of the youth in different directions.
5. To help in the selection of the right person for the right work, and thus save frustration.

Methods of Measuring Interest

We can measure the interests of individuals by the following methods:

1. Observation: We may observe manifest interests. What an individual actually does is a good indication of what his interests are.
2. Claims of the Counsellor: We can know the interests by knowing the expresses interests of the individual, in a subject, activity, object or vocation. Verbal claim can be an integrator of his interests.

3. Use of instruments:

Ø  We may assess interests using an instrument like Michigan vocabulary.

Ø  Test on the grounds that that if individual is really interested in something, he will know the vocabulary involved in that area.

4. Use of inventories:

Ø  We may determine the pattern of an individual’s interest from his responses to lists of occupations and activities.

Ø   The later are too often influenced by his limited and faulty knowledge of occupations.

Ø  This technique is by far the most common means of assessing interests and is commonly used.

Advantages of Interest Inventories

1. They are well adapted to vocational counseling. The student expects his interests to be considered. The interpretation, when given, carries considerable force because the student can see that he is looking at himself in a mirror, that he is only receiving an analysis of what he himself has said.
2. They are useful for the counselor too as they are less fraught with emotional significance. The subject can discuss the interest scores with the counselee freely.
3. They are helpful devices for the counselee too-Students do not mind revealing their interests and are eager to have a report of their scores. A promise to interpret scores is an excellent, non-threatening gambit to entice the student into the counselor’s office.
4.  They provide excellent preliminary information either to further group study of careers or to individual counselling.
5. They assist counsellor in dealing with many other student problems.

Limitations of Interest Inventories

1. There are certain limitations to be found in interest inventories.
2. Many students fail to show through their responses to interest inventories strong likes and dislikes or clearly defined preference.
3. The inventories can have validity only with persons whose likes have been long and varied enough to have provided them with experiences of the kind which will enable them to choose between alternatives presented by each item in the inventories. These inventories are, thus, more useful with mature than immature students.
4. Vocational choice or success cannot be predicted on the basis of even clearly defined patterns shown by the inventories alone. Ability, training and opportunity for training all need to be considered. Interes  test results cannot be over emphasized.

PERSONALITY TEST

Definitions of Personality

1. Morton Prince (1914): “The sum total of biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, aptitude and instincts of the individual and the disposition and tendencies acquired by experience.”

2. J.B.Watson (1924): “The sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observation over a longenough p

eriod of time to give reliable informations.”

3. Orden,R.M (1926): “Personality is the expression of man’s inner life. Character is the expression of what he does or achieves.”

4. Jones.A.J(1930): “Personality consists of the way you look, the way you dress, the way you talk, the way you walk, the way you act, the skill with which  you do things and your health.

5. McDougal.J.W(1932): “Personality is a synthetic unity of all mental features and functions in their interplay.”

6. Warren, H.C. (1935): “The entire mental organization of a human being at any stage of developent.

7. Eysenck.H.J(1947): “ A stable and enduring combination of a person’s various physical and mental process.

8. Cattle, R.B.(1967): “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.”

9. Guilford.J.P(1967): “An individual personality then, is his unique pattern of traits-a trait is any distinguishable relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another.”

10.  Lewin,Kurt.(1935): “A dynamic totality of systems.”

Nature of Personality

       There are various characteristics which throw light on the nature of Personality. Let me understand some of them to you:

·      Personality is a dynamic whole: The definition of Personality given by Allport reveals that the personality is the dynamic whole. The constituents of Personality are organized into units which are not static but active.

·      Personality measures behavior: Personality of an individual is more or less stable. It can be predicted by ones  behavior.

·      Outcome interaction of heredity and environment: Most of the psychologists review that Personality is the net result of the interaction of heredity characters and environment factors. The growth and the development of physical, social, emotional and moral are affected by environmental factors.

·      Motive Force: There are many theories of motivation which contributes to the understanding of the dynamics of personality. Behavior is affected overall by motives, ego involvement, incentives, etc.

Determinants of Personality

         Biological and environmental factors are responsible for the development of personality. Many things influence in the development of personality. Let me start with Biological Factors:

Biological factors are also known as heredity factors.

Biological Factors:

·      Physique and Personality: Various things influence the development of the personality. Physical development infrequence the development of personality such as; height, weight, physical defects, etc.

·      Intelligence: First i will define intelligence. Intelligence is the thinking power of human. due to intelligence, human is now in road towards development. Human beings can defeat anyone due to intelligence. Persons who are very intelligent can make better adjustment in around them. Intelligence is the hereditary. There is relationship between intelligence and personality.

·      Sex Differences: Generally boys are more assertive, tough minded and vigorous. They show interest in wining also in outdoor activities. Girls are interested in less vigorous games. They remain quite and show interest in personal or physical appearance. That is why, most of the girls have a better sense of fine art. Thus, sex differences play a vital role in the development of individual’s personality.

·      Nervous System: Other major system which plays important role is nervous system. Nervous System controls or limits ones learning capacity. It is evident that development of personality is influenced by nature of nervous system.

          Endocrine glands also play very important role in physical, intellectual, emotional and social development. In the words of Ogburn and Nimkoof “Biological heredity ushers infant actors on the stage of which physical environment, the group and culture have set. The dramatic actor now begins and new born baby transforms into a social person”.

Environmental Factors

·      Geographical environment: Individuals personality is influenced by the geographical conditions.

·      Childhood experiences: It is of vital importance. When in childhood, the individual is hunted by tensions and emotions, it influences its development.,

·      School: School plays a major role in the development of personality. Most precious thing is the teachers personality. That is, the attitudes, beliefs habits, etc of teacher. It really affects the development of personality. Also, how teacher teaches to an individual. It plays a vital role.

·      Culture: Personality is the image or mirror of culture. It plays a great role in the development of personality.

Other Environmental factors lie clubs, cinemas, mosques, churches, etc., lays a significant role.

Characteristics of Personality:

     New comb has discussed personality in the light of certain characteristics and traits. These characteristics and traits are as follows:

1. Personality is something which is unique in each individual:

      Personality refers to internal as well as external qualities, some of which are quite general. But it is unique to each individual. It is not possible for any other individual to reproduce or imitate the qualities of the personality of the individual.

2. Personality refers particularly to persistent qualities of an individual:

       Every individual has certain feeling as well as other permanent traits and qualities. Personality is mainly composed of the persistent or permanent qualities that exhibit themselves in form of social behaviour and attempt to make adjustment with the environment.

3. Personality represents a dynamic orientation of organism to environment:

      Personality represents the process of learning. It takes place in reference to the environment. We do not acquire all the traits of personality all at once.

4. Personality is greatly influenced by social interactions:

       Personality is not an individual quality. It is a result of social- interaction. In other words, it means that when we come in contact with other members of the society, we acquire certain qualities while we exhibit certain others. All these come to form personality.

5. Personality represents a unique organisation of persistent dynamic and social predisposition:

       In personality various qualities are not put together. They are, in fact, integrated into one. This integration is nothing but a result of organisation which may be different from man to man. The behaviour of a person directed to one particular individual may differ from the behaviour of another person. That is why; we put the condition of suitable environment. This suitability is concerned with individual specificity.

               Trait-based personality theories, such as those defined by Raymond Cattell define personality as the traits that predict a person's behavior. On the other hand, more behaviorally based approaches define personality through learning and habits. Nevertheless, most theories view personality as relatively stable.

Big Five personality traits

        The Big Five personality traits, also known as the five-factor model (FFM) and the OCEAN model, are taxonomy for personality traits.^[1] It is based on common language descriptors.

1. Openness to experience

2. Conscientiousness

3. Extroversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Neuroticism

             People who do not exhibit a clear predisposition to a single factor in each dimension above are considered adaptable, moderate and reasonable, yet they can also be perceived as unprincipled, inscrutable and calculating.^] Depending on how much of each trait a person has, it could make someone more susceptible to participating in certain activities.

          Family life and the way someone was raised will also affect these traits. Twin studies and other research have shown that about half of the variation between individuals results from their genetics and half from their environments. Researchers have found conscientiousness, extroversion, openness to experience, and neuroticism to be relatively stable from childhood through adulthood.

Descriptions of the particular personality traits

1. Openness to experience

                Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, open to emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things. They tend to be, when compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are also more likely to hold unconventional beliefs.

Sample items

• I have excellent ideas.
• I am quick to understand things.
• I use difficult words.
• I am full of ideas.
• I am not interested in abstractions. (reversed)
• I do not have a good imagination. (reversed)
• I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed)

2. Conscientiousness

             Conscientiousness is a tendency to display self-discipline, act dutifully, and strive for achievement against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control, regulate, and direct their impulses. High scores on conscientiousness indicate a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior.^[41] The average level of conscientiousness rises among young adults and then declines among older adults.^[42]

Sample items

• I always am prepared.
• I pay attention to details.
• I get chores done right away.
• I like order.
• I follow a schedule.
• I am exacting in my work.
• I leave my belongings around. (reversed)
• I make a mess of things. (reversed)
• I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed)
• I shirk my duties. (reversed)

3. Extroversion

                Extroversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external activity/situations, and energy creation from external means.^[43] The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals. They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves.^[44]

Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extroverts. They tend to seem quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their social world than extroverts. Introverts need less stimulation, and more time alone than extroverts. This does not mean that they are unfriendly or antisocial; rather, they are reserved in social situations.^[1]

Generally, people are a combination of extraversion and introversion, with personality psychologist Eysenck suggesting that these traits are connected somehow to our central nervous system.^[6]:106

Sample items

• I am the life of the party.
• I don't mind being the center of attention.
• I feel comfortable around people.
• I start conversations.
• I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
• I don't talk a lot. (reversed)
• I think a lot before I speak or act. (reversed)
• I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)
• I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)^[40]
• I have no intention of talking in large crowds. (reversed)

4. Agreeableness

           The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social   harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others.^[1] Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature.

         Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others' well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative.^[45]

Sample items

• I am interested in people.
• I sympathize with others' feelings.
• I have a soft heart.
• I take time out for others.
• I feel others' emotions.
• I make people feel at ease.
• I am not really interested in others. (reversed)
• I insult people. (reversed)
• I am not interested in other people's problems. (reversed)
• I feel little concern for others. (reversed)^[40]

5. Neuroticism

       Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional stability. According to Eysenck's (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism is interlinked with low tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli.

        At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low-scorers experience a lot of positive feelings.

        Neuroticism is similar but not identical to being neurotic in the Freudian sense (i.e., neurosis.) Some psychologists prefer to call neuroticism by the term emotional instability to differentiate it from the term neurotic in a career test.

Sample items

• I get irritated easily.
• I get stressed out easily.
• I get upset easily.
• I have frequent mood swings.
• I worry about things.
• I am much more anxious than most people.^[56]
• I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)
• I seldom feel blue. (reversed)^[40]
• What defines an introvert?

INTROVERT

           Introvert Definition: The definition of an introvert is someone who prefers calm, minimally stimulating environments. Introverts tend to feel drained after socializing and regain their energy by spending time alone. This is largely because introverts' brains respond to dopamine differently than extroverts' brains.

Signs that you’re an Introvert

• You enjoy spending plenty of time alone. ...
• Your inner monologue is hard to shut off. ...
• You do your best thinking alone. ...
• You often feel lonelier in a crowd than when you're alone. ...
• You feel like you're faking it when you have to network. ...
• You have no desire to be the center of attention.

Common Introversion Traits

• Very self-aware.
• Thoughtful.
• Enjoys understanding details.
• Interested in self-knowledge and self-understanding.
• Tends to keep emotions private.
• Quiet and reserved in large groups or around unfamiliar people.
• More sociable and gregarious around people they know well.
• Learns well through observation.

EXTROVERT

• Extroverts are often described as the life of the party. Their outgoing, vibrant nature draws people to them, and they have a hard time turning away the attention. They thrive off the interaction.
• On the opposite side are introverts. These people are typically described as more reserved. They may engage in a multitude of social activities, but they need time away from others to recharge their energy.

1. Extrovert

            Extroverts are those people who gain energy by being around people. They are extremely friendly and who love discussing their ideas with others or simply love spending time socially.

Phrases you could use to say you are an extrovert –

1.      I’m really outgoing – Someone who is socially confident

2.      I’m a gregarious person – Gregarious means you are sociable and you love being around people. Someone who love discussing ideas openly.

3.      I’m a social butterfly – This means you are friendly and love being socially active and are easily approachable.

4.      I’m very friendly – You could be friends with anyone, anytime.

2. Introvert

           Introverts are those people who are not very confident about themselves, they are not shy but they avoid interactions with others and are very emotional.

Phrases you could use to say you are an introvert –

1.      I’m kind of reserved – This means you are a very private person; you share things with limited people.

2.      I like to spend time with close friends – You restrict yourself from making many friends and are very choosy about making friends.

3.      I usually listen more than I speak – You generally like to listen carefully and won’t share your opinion or ideas openly and socially.

3. Ambivert –

         Ambiverts are generally who have a balance of extroverts and introverts in their personality.

Phrases you could use to say you are an ambivert

1.      I alter my personality based on the situation – You are able to adjust with extroverts and introverts based on the situations.

2.      When a topic of interest comes up, I’m more than happy to talk about it – If it’s your subject of conversation you would display the qualities of an extrovert and vice-versa.

3.      Spending too much time with other people can be exhausting – You like spending time with people but can’t hold on to it for long, you are social but not a social butterfly.

             We hope you have liked this lesson and you would use the English phrases you just    

            learned in your daily English speaking. Thanks for watching, come back for new lessons.

Personality traits of an extrovert

1. You enjoy social settings

            People with more extroverted tendencies are often the center of attention — and they like it that way. They thrive in social situations, and they seek out social stimulation. Extroverts often aren’t afraid to introduce themselves to new people, and they rarely avoid unfamiliar situations for fear of messing up or not knowing someone.

2. You don’t like or need a lot of alone time

          While introverts need to escape to their homes or offices after a night out with friends or an   intense meeting, extroverts find that too much alone time drains their natural energy. They recharge their internal batteries by being around other people.

3. You thrive around people

    Extroverts feel comfortable in large groups. They may be more likely to spearhead group sports or group outings. They may be the ring leader for weekend activities, after-work cocktail hours, or other social events. They rarely turn down invitations to weddings, parties, and other gatherings.

4. You’re friends with many people

             Extroverts make new friends easily. This is in part because they enjoy other people’s energy and getting to engage with people around them. They also tend to have a large social network and many acquaintances. With pursuing new interests and activities, extroverts are often keen to expand their social circles.

5. You prefer to talk out problems or questions

        While introverts are more likely to internalize problems and think through them, extroverts don’t mind taking their problems to others for discussion and guidance. They’re often more willing to express themselves openly and make clear their preferences or choices.

6. You’re outgoing and optimistic

        Extroverts are often described as happy, positive, cheerful, and sociable. They aren’t as likely to dwell on problems or ponder difficulties. While they experience difficulties and troubles like       anyone else, extroverts are often more able to let it roll off their backs.

7. You aren’t afraid of risk

         Extroverts may engage in risky behavior. Some theories assert that their brain is wired to reward them for it if it goes well. One study found that extroverts who take risks and succeed are rewarded with dopamine, a chemical that triggers the reward center of the brain. In the case of the study, participants gambled, but the response could be true for any number of activities.

         Extroverts may be more willing to take risks because the benefit is a surge of chemicals that stimulate the brain.

8. You’re flexible

           Extroverts are often adaptable to any situation and innovative when problems arise. While they may be organized, not all extroverts need a plan of action before they can begin a project, plan a vacation, or undertake any task. Spontaneous decisions may be welcomed.

Some of the general characteristics associated with extroversion include:

• Numerous, broad interests
• Likes to communicate by talking
• Enjoys being at the center of attention
• Tends to act first before thinking
• Enjoys group work
• Feels isolated by too much time spent alone
• Looks to others and outside sources for ideas and inspiration
• Likes to talk about thoughts and feelings

        Personality Test    

        Personality tests are techniques or methods with certain preset questions to determine a person's certain abilities pertaining to his/her personality. These tests can determine various aspects like temperament, emotional response, social ability, stability etc. These personality tests can be used to sketch out certain personality attributes of a person which can help in many aspects.

        Personality tests are today an important aspect of all pre-interview screening. It provides the employer with valuable insights of an employee before they are hired. It is also a predictor of how they would react in different situations.

Types and Problems of Personality Testing

        Personality testing refers to techniques that are used to accurately and consistently measure personality.

       Personality is something that we informally assess and describe every day. When we talk about ourselves and others, we frequently refer to different characteristics of an individual's personality. Psychologists do much the same thing when they assess personality but on a much more systematic and scientific level.

How Are Personality Tests Used?

• For assessing theories
• To look at changes in personality
• To evaluate the effectiveness of therapy
• Diagnosing psychological problems
• Screening job candidates

           Personality tests are also sometimes used in forensic settings to conduct risk assessments, establish competence and in child custody disputes.

Types of Personality Assessment

There are two basic types of personality tests: self-report inventories and projective tests.

• Self-report inventories involve having test-takers read questions and then rate how well the question or statement applies to them. One of the most common self-report inventories is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory or MMPI.
• Projective tests involve presenting the test-taker with a vague scene, object, or scenario and then asking them to give their interpretation of the test item. One well-known example of a projective test is the Rorschach Inkblot Test.

Why Personality Test Use is increasing 

         Despite the controversy surrounding some of these personality tests, there has been a dramatic increase in the use of personality tests over the past ten years or so. The single most frequently given reason for increases in testing is the need to have a selection process which can withstand legal challenges. Increased test use can therefore be seen in part as a defensive strategy, adopted in response to regulation and legislation. Another factor is the ease with which these tests can now be delivered online. This approach has distinct advantages over paper-and-pencil tests:

·         There is no need to print and distribute printed material. This has dramatically lowered the cost of test administration.

·         Results can be processed immediately with no human input. The test administration software can produce very detailed and impressive looking reports. See Example.

·         There has been a growing acceptance of personality testing among the general public. Many people quite happily complete online personality profiles in their own time outside of the recruitment process.

·         There are now more suppliers producing a greater variety of tests. This has driven costs down even further and increased the choice of tests available to recruiting organizations.

10 Most Popular Personality Tests

• The Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) ...
• Disc Assessment. ...
• The Winslow Personality Profile. ...
• Process Communication Model. ...
• The Holtzman Inkblot Technique. ...
• Hexaco Personality Inventory. ...
• The Revised Neo Personality Inventory (Neo Pi-R) ...
• The Personality Assessment System.

Why use personality assessment tests?

       Personality assessment tests may seem like a gamble, but they have their merits. Employers rely on them to discover the personal strengths of their employees. Therefore, they ease the hiring process. Also, these tests are useful because they help people find life partners. Understanding your personality type may help you find your match.

10 Most Popular Personality Tests

1. The Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

        First of all is the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator. Created by Katherine Briggs and daughter Isabel Myers, the MBTI is one of the most popular personality assessment tests to date.

They based it on the ideas of psychoanalyst Carl Jung, who thought that people understood the world through sensation, intuition, feeling and thinking. Jung suggested that only one of these psychological functions is powerful most of the time. They also show if people are introverts or extroverts. While intuition and sensing help perception, feeling and thinking support judgment.

A test meant for the working population, the MBTI considers personality differences. It has flaws but is one of the most reliable assessments.

2. Disc Assessment

       Next on the list is DISC. Based on the ideas of psychologists William Marston and Walter Clarke, it evaluates behavior. It focuses on the traits of dominance, inducement, submission, and compliance (DISC). Some companies rely on it to hire staff, while others use it to gauge an employee’s suitability for a job. It may put you on the right career path for you.

3. The Winslow Personality Profile

           This personality assessment test measures career success and happiness. It evaluates 24 personality traits and helps a person find their strengths. This test is well-received because it is user-friendly. It has helped celebrities such as football star John Elway make critical career decisions. You may want to take a Winslow Profile to boost your career or relationships.

4. Process Communication Model

          The brainchild of NASA, the Process Communication Model (PCM) personality tool helps it screen astronauts for its missions. This assessment groups people into six personality types. People are either harmonizers, thinkers, rebels, imagineers, persisters, or promoters. Since this test assesses personal strengths, it may show yours and lead you to the perfect career.

5. The Holtzman Inkblot Technique

         The Holtzman Inkblot Technique, created by Walter H. Holtzman, assesses personalities with ink blots. It addresses issues in the Rorschach test, a similar type of assessment. The Rorschach test faced criticism because it did not include specific criteria. Therefore, skeptics felt that it was pseudoscience.

        Unlike its predecessor, the Holtzman test considered criteria such as the reaction time, rejection, place, space, and form of ink blots. The improvements have made it a popular personality assessment.

6. Hexaco Personality Inventory

As its name suggests, the Hexaco Personality Inventory tests six characteristics of Humility, Emotionality, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to experience. It assesses a person based on the adjectives that fall under these categories. They are as follows:

1. Humility (H): Fairness, Sincerity, Greed Avoidance

2. Emotionality (E): Courage, Anxiety, Sentimentality, and dependence

3. Extraversion (X): Social self-esteem, boldness, liveliness

4. Agreeableness (A) Willingness to forgive, Flexibility, Gentleness, and Patience

5. Conscientiousness(C): Organization, Perfectionism, Diligence, and Prudence

6. Openness to Experience (O): Appreciation, Inquisitiveness, and Creativity

Critics say that this test is inaccurate because it does not consider cultural differences. Nevertheless, it still makes a reliable tool for companies and people.

Neuroticism: Anxiety, Hostility, Depression, Self-consciousness, Impulsiveness and Vulnerability to Stress

Extraversion: Gregaropismess. Assertiveness, Activity, Excitement-seeking and Positivism

Openness to Experience: Fantasy, Aesthetics, Feelings, Actions, Ideas and Values

Agreeableness: Trust, Straightforwardness, Altruism, Compliance, Modesty, and Tenderness

Conscientiousness: Competence, Order, Dutifulness, Achievement Striving, Self-Discipline, and Deliberation

           While this test considers many factors, it does not address social bias. It assumes that people are honest at all times, but this is untrue. In high stakes situations like job interviews,  most people present themselves in a better light than usual. That said, you may want to try it yourself because it is comprehensive.

7. The Revised Neo Personality Inventory (Neo Pi-R)

            Also on the list is the Neo Pi-R, a revised version of the Neo Personality Theory developed by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae. It evaluates people based on the traits of Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience. Almost like the Hexaco theory, it assesses descriptive adjectives that fall under categories:

8. The Personality Assessment System

           Developed by former CIA psychologist John W. Gittinger, the Personality Assessment System (PAS) assesses personality profiles.

Unlike other personality assessment tests, it uses the Wechsler Scales subtests to decide a person’s intelligence and skills. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale gathers character information. It also considers character formation and development. Companies find it useful because it provides psychological information.

9. The Birkman Method

             Another test is the Birkman Method. Developed by Roger Birkman, it measures a person’s reaction to stress. It also considers strengths and social behavior. Studies like the Classical Test Theory and the Item Response Theory support its reliability. Because it is quite detailed, you may want to try it for yourself.

10. The Enneagram

       The last test the Engram, a model of 9 personality types. Based on the work of Oscar Ichazo and Claudio Naranjo, it represents these personality types in a geometric figure. They include:

1.      Reformers 2.Helpers3.Achievers4.Individualists5.Investigators6.Loyalists7.Enthusiasts

8. Challengers and9. Peacemakers.

           The Engram has a circle, an inner triangle, and a hexagon. The ring explains how the different personalities unite while the triangle shows how three nearby characters may influence each character. The hexagon, in arithmetic, is the decimal figure derived from dividing one by seven. It is a well-received assessment because it is thorough. Consequently, knowing your Engram type may boost your career.

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE

What is “projection”?

         A defense mechanism with which the ego protects itself from anxiety by externalizing unpleasant feelings or experiential element

• What is “projective techniques”?

            The use of vague, ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects or situations in which the subject “projects” his or her personality, attitude, opinions and self-concept to give the situation some structure

Projective Techniques

     Any personality test designed to yield information about someone’s personality on the basis of their unrestricted response to ambiguous objects or situations.

     Projective techniques involve asking subjects to interpret or fill in visual stimuli, complete sentences, or report what associations particular words bring to mind. Because of the leeway provided by the tests, subjects project their own personalities onto the stimulus, often revealing personal conflicts, motivations, coping styles, and other characteristics.

         The best known projective test is the Rorschach test, created in the 1920s by Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922). It consists of a series of 10 cards, each containing a complicated inkblot. Some are in black and white, some in color. Subjects are asked to describe what they see in each card. Test scores are based on several parameters: 1) what part of the blot a person focuses on; 2) what particular details determine the response; 3) the content of the responses (what objects, persons, or situations they involve); and 4) the frequency with which a particular response has been given by previous test takers. A  number of different scoring methods have been devised for the Rorschach test, some aimed at providing greater objectivity and validity for this highly impressionistic form of assessment. However, many psychologists still interpret the test freely according to their subjective impressions. Some also take into account the subject's demeanor while taking the test (cooperative, anxious, defensive, etc.).

        Test takers look at a series of up to 20 pictures of people in a variety of recognizable settings and construct a story about what is happening in each one. They are asked to describe not only what is happening at the moment shown in the picture but also what events led up to the present situation and what the characters are thinking and feeling. They are encouraged to interpret the pictures as freely and imaginatively as they want and to be completely open and honest in their responses. As with the Rorschach test, the psychologist often interprets the test results subjectively, focusing on any recurring themes in responses to the different pictures. However, scoring methods have also been developed that focus on specific aspects of the subjects' responses, including aggression, expression of needs, and perceptions of reality.

Theory about Projective Tests:

       The projective tests are done under the assumption that humans have conscious and unconscious motivation and attitudes.

1. It maintains conscious and unconscious constraints:

     The test affirms that an individual has various needs which can be both conscious and unconscious. These needs can be understood using the projective tests. It is very common to think that these projective tests can be more on the sides of personality. And that is why it mainly handles all the factors of a natural human behavior on conscious and unconscious elements.

2. It results in spontaneous outcomes:

         The need of the person comes out spontaneously and there is no editing in these needs. It is the actual picture about the thought process of a person. And that is why these projective tests represent most spontaneous outcomes of a human behavior. Moreover, it clearly pictures all the needs and wants of the person in middle of some sort of emotional roller coaster rides.

3. It depends upon non-verbal communication:

      The test does not depend on the verbal details of the person who is getting tested. The results are confirmed on the basis of what the person tells spontaneously while conducting the tests.

       In simpler words, one can definitely understand the actual personal behavior. Therefore, it is one of the  most non-verbal communication where in which people present their nonverbal communication and that might depend upon behavior, reaction and attitude.

4. Motivational barriers:

        This study understands all the results of personality reactions. And most importantly, all the motivations, beliefs and attitudes are detectable quickly. And that is why bringing motivational barriers can increase the stake of this projective test hypothesis high.

Types of Projective Tests:

There are various types of projective tests which are carried out on the individuals depending upon the needs of the person.

1. Rorschach test:

        The Rorschach inkblot test is very frequently used by the experts for the purpose of projective tests. In this test there are various ink blots which are plotted symmetrically, but in an irregular position. The person is then asked what they are seeing in these blots. They get various responses from this test – the response is then analyzed keeping in mind various parameters.

       The experts check what time was taken to respond, what the person said about the ink blots, which was the most important aspect that was touched upon.

Example –

If the respondent sees fearful images, then they assume that the person is suffering from paranoia.

2. Holtzman Inkblot test:

        The Holtzman test is a variation of the Rorschach test. Here the images used for the respondent is much more as compared to the above test. The major difference between the two tests is that in this particular test the objective scoring is more important – the experts actually check the reaction time of the individual during the inkblot test.

3. Thematic apperception test:

       This test is another well-known test – it is more popularly known as the TAT test. In this type of test the individual is asked to look at various scenes which are ambiguous. The respondent is given time to analyze the scenes and also to understand different aspects of the picture or scene.

4. Behavioral test:

       The respondent will be asked to provide information about what type of a picture is shown – what are the characters present; what are the emotions present in these characters or you can also ask what will happen further. The experts check these responses and come to a conclusion and thus understand the frame of mind of the person.

5. Graphology:

      It has been proved by various studies that handwriting of a person can reveal many things. Graphology is a skill of handwriting through which the experts can understand your nature and physical characteristics.

      When the respondents write, the experts can easily understand the state of mind in which the person is at present; besides this they can also analyze the personality traits of the person.

      Even though there have been many controversies about graphology it is still used for projective tests and they have positive results.

6. Sentence completion test:

       This test as the name suggests needs the respondent to complete certain sentences. This has to be done in their own words – when the respondent completes the sentences it reveals the conscious and unconscious attitudes of the person, beliefs and motivation.

       The person could be in any state of mind while completing the sentences – this will show in this test – thus providing the expertise to evaluate the nature and state of mind of the person.

7. The Draw-A-Person Test:

       This projective test completely depends upon your imagination. As the name goes, here you need to draw a person, and that image is then analyzed by the test interpreter. The examiner by analyzing the image looks for few factors like,

·Size of particular parts of the body

·The detail given to the figure

·The overall shape of the image

       As per the examiner, it is the image that helps you understand the psychological condition of the person who had undergone the test. But as this test is also considered one which lacks validity, many disagree to the point of psychological tendencies and instead believe that the person has poor drawing skills.

8. The House-Tree-Person Test:

       This test was developed by John Buck and it comprises of a set of 60 questions to ask the respondent. The test interpreter can also add some of his questions during the test.

         In this house-tree-person, the candidate is said to draw a picture of a house, tree and a person. After completion of the drawing, the examiner asks few questions to the respondent and they analyze the answers given.

Some of the questions are

·Who lives here?

·Who visits the person who lives here?

·Is the occupant happy? etc

Value of Projective Tests:

           Though these projective tests are developed for understanding human behavior and emotions, not many people completely agree with its outcomes. Despite the fact that there are many kind of limitations to these projective tests, they are still used by many psychiatrists and psychologists.

           Also many experts who work on these projective tests are working on updating these tests such that they not only provide validity but also add some value.

           Projective tests are also been used in market research to evaluate the emotions, associations, and thought processes related to the brand and products.

Classification of Projective Techniques:

           Projective techniques are mainly designed and developed for making use in the psychology sector, especially when conducting psychological tests.

These tests are conducted mainly to evaluate and analyze the person’s emotions and other feeling through test interviews.

Projective techniques are mainly divided into five groups (Linzey, 1959)

·Associative techniques

·Completion techniques

·Constructive techniques

·Choice/ordering techniques

·Expressive techniques

Advantages of Projective Tests:

      Projective tests have created many debates and controversies among the experts – because at times the results may vary as compared to the personality of the person. But the fact is that these tests have proved to be positive to a large extent. There are many persons who have been benefitted because of this test.

       The experts have been able to help the person change their behavior and take a positive attitude in their lives. While conducting the projective tests, there are many assumptions which can be taken into consideration.

1. If the tests are unstructured it is easy for the respondents declare their personality:

        Most of the time these types of tests create some sort of situation where in which the personality of the person is pictured in a much unstructured manner. And that is why it can be considered as an advantage for the people who undergo such type of tests.

         Since they can present their personality in a very common and simple way. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the concept of projective tests before coming to a final conclusion.

2. It is assumed that the projection is greater than the stimulus which is almost same to the respondent:

        Sometimes it happens that people undergo some sort of different characters. And those characters can confuse them completely.

        To make things clear projection test conducts some sort of personality study segment. This personality study segment helps people understand the actual objective of these projection tests.

Therefore, it is an assumption that projection test is greater than stimulus in terms of their visible constraints.

3. Each and every response given by the respondent explains the benefits of personality:

       Most commonly during any type tests or examination, the result will depend on the reaction and refection of the a human behavior. And fortunately these projections tests created a diversion where in which all the test results of the respondent are considered as one of the benefits for their own purpose. Therefore, these projection tests help a respondent understand all the facts and benefits of these tests.

4. Another assumption is that there is an unconscious mind in every person:

      Because of these projective tests the person is not aware about what they are disclosing during the projective tests. And it can be considered as one of the major benefits for all the respondents.

      The age of the examiner or the expert is also considered while conducting of the projective test; there are specific instructions and clues which are provided during such tests. Therefore, all the additional benefits of projection tests can understand common human behavior.

Advantages of Projective Techniques

1. They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study. 

2. Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms. 

3. Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

4. Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

5. Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent. 

6. Require highly trained interviewers. 

7. Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses. 

8. There is a serious risk of interpretation bias. 

9. They tend to be expensive. 

10. May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior. 

11. Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques 

12. Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct methods.

13. Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding.

14. Given their complexity, projective techniques should not be used naively.

Disadvantages of Projective Tests:

          There is some possibility that while studying or researching about these projective tests, a person can undergo some sorts of disadvantages which can completely change the outlook of the tests. And it is very common to explore the advantages and disadvantages of some techniques and tests that are in the process of an investigation.

1. It need highly qualified and experienced professionals:

All the terms and elements used in these projective tests requires high maintenance. And it is even possible that under these quite high maintenance the respondent can be intimidated. Therefore, it is factual information that those who conduct such projective tests need to be well qualified and experienced in this field of study. And finding such highly qualified and experienced interviewers can be an added disadvantage.

2. It is expensive:

      These projective tests are one of the major interviewing and researching technique and that is why it costs a bit more than any other tests and researches. The projective tests are conducted to identify all the personality, attitude and human behavior. Therefore, it is necessary to understand all the external factors of these projective techniques in terms of their cost and results.

3. Risk of interpretation bias:

          These risks of interpretive bias can be considered as one of the common and highly effective disadvantages of these projective tests. The structural outcome of these interpretive bias can be measured in terms of their projection. As all the facts about projective tests evolves around personality change and behavior, there is quite a possibility that the interpretation of those personalities can be interpreted in a completely different manner.

4. Respondents engage in unusual behavior:

        The people who undergo these unusual behaviors during these projective tests can be in the high side of the risk. And that is why all the situations and facts about the projective techniques and tests can fortunately be in a comforting side of engaging in unusual behavior. Therefore, projective tests are one of the way where in which all the personality change and reaction over situation counted the most.

  5. Unstructured techniques:

  As it is explained earlier that projective tests mainly revolve around an interviewing procedure which takes a command from an unstructured techniques. And this unstructured technique can change the complete game eventually. While processing these tests one can understand all the unplanned and unexpected situations. And it is quite possible that at the end one can clearly come out of such unstructured techniques.

       Finally, the bottom line is that all the above mentioned meaning, advantages and disadvantages of projective tests can provide clear clarification about their detailed information.

         There are some people who might get confused about the elements mentioned in the discussion, but this discussion over projective tests can clear all types of confusion among people.

    Therefore, if anyone interested to know more about the projective tests, then they can read all the information stated above in favor of projective tests.

RATING SCALE:

           Rating scales resemble check lists but are used when finer discriminations are required. Instead of merely indicating the presence or absence of a trait or characteristic, it enables us to indicate the degree to which a trait is present. Rating scales provide systematic procedures for obtaining, recording and reporting the observer’s judgements. That may be filled out while the observation is made, immediately after the observation is made or, as often is the case long after the observation.

Types of Rating Scales:

a    1.Numerical Rating Scale:

     This is one of the simplest types of rating scales. The rater simply marks a number that indicates the extent to which a characteristic or trait is present. The trait is presented as a statement and values from 1 to 5 (a maximum of 10) are assigned to each trait that is rated. Typically a common key is used throughout, the key providing a verbal description.

Direction: Encircle the appropriate number showing the extent to which the pupil exhibits his skill in questioning.

Key: 5-outstanding, 4-above average, 3-average, 2-below average, 1- unsatisfactory.

Skill:

1.      Questions were specific:                                     1       2       3         4        5

2.      Questions were relevant to the

                            Topic discussed.                        1       2       3         4        5

3.      Questions were grammatically correct, etc.    1       2       3         4        5

b2. Graphic Rating Scale:

As in the case of the numerical rating scale, the rater is required to assign some value to a specific trait. This time, however, instead of using predetermined scale values, the ratings are made in a graphic form-a position anywhere along a continuum.

Direction: Rate for each characteristic listed below along the continuum from 1 to 5. You can use points between the scale values. Mark X at the appropriate place along the continuum.

1.      Were the illustrations used interesting?

     1                                2                            3                                      4                       5

Too little                   Little                   Adequate                         Much              Too much

2.      How attentive were you in the class?

     1                              2                                3                         4                             5

                            Very inattentive          Inattentive                                         Attentive                  Very attentive

3.      Did the speech show good organisaqtion?

_____________________________________________________________________

    1                                2                              3                              4                               5

Very poor                                               Average                                                  Very good

Advantage: If a number of traits are rated on the same page with a common set of categories, a behavioural profile can be constructed.

C) Descriptive Graphic Rating Scale

          This type of scale is generally the most desirable type of scale to use.

Directions: As shown above for the graphic rating scale.

1.      While preparing a blackboard summary, how was the penmanship?

Legible, beautiful,                 normally readable,                                         illegible, bad-looking

Uniform size and                   good-looking,                                                   tends to draw outlines

Slant                                       fluent motion

    Such specific descriptions contribute to a greater objectivity of the rating process. The description also helps to clarify and further define a particular dimension.

d) Ranking:

In the ranking procedure, the rater, instead of assigning a numerical value to each student with regard to a characteristic, ranks a given set of individuals from high to low on the characteristic this rated. To ensure that the pupils are validly ranked, rank from the both extreme towards the middle. This simplifies the task of the teacher. The ranking procedure becomes very cumbersome when a large number of students or characteristics per student are to be ranked.

Sources of Error in Rating Scales:

(a)   Ambiguity:This refers to the wording and meaning of the traits that are measured, e.g., to one rater, aggressiveness may be a positive trait suggesting self-assertion. To another it may cannot hostility. The term such as honestly, effective and fruitful learning, intelligent citizen, personality, ideal character, etc. must be clarified. Unless all pupils are rated on the same attributes, the rating will be invalid and unreliable.

Ambiguity in the frame of reference is another problem of rating scales. What do the words superior, good, inferior, really mean? They are relative terms

To reduce ambiguity, the behaviour to be measured should be broken up into a series of specific, observable and measureable traits by describing fully what each trait represents, and by giving example of the different kinds of behaviour associated with differing levels of the trait.

(b)Personality of the Rater:This refers the halo effect, personal bias (generosity error, severity error, central tendency error and logical error).

The halo effect occurs when a rater’s general impression of a person influence his rating.

     A generosity error is committed when a rater favours the high (desirable) end of the continuum-that is, when he is very lenient.

    A severity error is committed when a rater favours the low (undesirable) end oif the continuum-that is, when he is very harsh.

     A central tendency error is committed when a rater avoids using extremes and favours the middle position-that is, rates everybody about average.

      A logical error is closely related to the halo effect, but is not due to personal bias, It occurs when two traits, such as intelligence and socio-economic status, are closely related and the rater is influenced in his rating of one by the presence or absence of the other. Here, the rater thinks or may hold the false belief that highly intelligent persons possess a high socio-economic status.

(c)Attitude of Raters:Accurate observation is a very time consuming process. Unless the raters truly believe that there is some value to be derived from rating, they may consider them only as another administrative process and not to do a conscious job.

(d)Opportunity for Adequate Observation: This is the most serious error. The error is committed when the rater does not know well enough the pupil he is rating. The only reasonable thing to do is to refuse to rate the pupil on those trait about which you have little or no knowledge.

Uses of Rating Scale

1.      They measure specified outcomes or objectives of education deemed to be significant or important to the teacher.

2.      They evaluate procedures (such as paying on an instrument, working in the laboratory, typing, cooking, singing, oral reading, acting in a play), Products (such as typed letters, a speech, written themes, samples of handwriting, art work), and personal social development.

3.      They help teachers to rate their students periodically on various characteristics such as punctuality, enthusiasm, cheerfulness, co-cooperativeness, consideration for others and other personality traits.

4.      They can also be used by pupil to rate himself.

A Word of Caution

Rating scales tend to be less reliable, valid and efficient than tests; they should not therefore be used to evaluate outcomes that can be more easily and validly assessed through other procedures. Again, they are likely to reflect a teacher’s bias concerning a student rather than the student’s actual behaviour; therefore, they should be used with care and caution.

Advantages of Rating Scales

1.      They can be used with a large number of students.

2.      They tend to be very adaptable and flexible.

3.      They can be efficient and economical in the use of a teacher’s time.

4.      They can be comprehensive in the amount of information recorded.

5.      They can help to reduce the subjectivity and unreliability that are usually associated with observation methods.

Improving the Rating Scale:

1.      Identify educationally significant traits.

2.      Clearly define the traits to be rated and the scale points to be used.

3.      Avoid technical jargon. If slang will help convey the intent, use it by all means.

4.      Express the traits to be rated as questions rather than as declarative statements.

5.      If the line showing the continuum is used, it should follow immediately after the question.

6.      Determine how discriminating you want the ratings and divide the continuum accordingly. (Three-to seven point intervals).

Improve the Rater:

1.      The rater should know (a) the value of accurate and honest ratings, (b) the kinds of errors commonly committed and how they may be avoided or at least minimized.

2.      Motivate the rater to do as accurate a job as possible.

3.      Select persons who can provide objective, unbiased ratings. Avoid persons who are either over critical or solicitous.

Factors Improving Validity of Rating:

1.      Take care in the construction of the scale and the selection of the raters.

2.      Encourage raters not to rate those traits or persons for which or for whom they have insufficient or no knowledge.

3.      Average judges’ ratings.

4.      Rate only one trait or characteristics at a time.

5.      To reduce the halo effect, vary the direction of the scale; that is, for some ratings, have the first position indicate a desirable trait, the last an undesirable trait, and vice versa.

6.      Avoid making the extremes so atypical of behaviour that few raters will use these points.

7.      Make the meaning of the intermediate levels closer to the neutral or average level rather than the extreme points.

8.      The rater may be asked to quote instances in support of his judgement to avoid careless rating.

QUESTIONNAIRE/INVENTORIES

        A questionnaire is a list of planned written questions related to a particular topic or series of topics. Space is provided for the reply to each question.

          In Structured (closed-end) type of questionnaire, the answers are checked or underlined by the respondent. In the unstructured (open-end) type, the respondent is allowed to make free responses to the questions. The inventory comes under the first type.

         A questionnaire is used where factual information from the respondents is desired. It consists of a form containing a series of questions where the respondents themselves fill in the answers. Barr, Davi and Johnson defines a questionnaire as, “A questionnaire is a systematic computation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population form which information is desired.”

     According to G.A.Langberg, “Fundamentally, the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to which literate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behaviour under these stimuli”.

       Good and Hatt opine, “In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills-in himself.

     A questionnaire must be distinguished from a “schedule”, an ”opinionnaire”, and an “interview-guide”. A Schedule consists of a form containing a series of questions, which are asked and filled in by the investigator in a face to face situation. An opinionnaire is an information form which attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual. Hence, opinionnaire is also called as an attitude scale. When factual information is desired, a questionnaire is used but when opinions rather than facts are desired opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. An interview-guide consists of a list of basic points or topics to be covered by the interview during the interview.

      A questionnaire is usually administered personally to groups of individuals. When several persons are available at the same time and place, a questionnaire proves to be very economical tool of data collection. A Questionnaire also enables researchers to get firsthand information regarding the vagueness of items, if any, as well as it gives them an opportunity to establish a warm relationship with the persons being tested.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

A good questionnaire must have certain characteristics. A questionnaire must be:

1. Specific: The questionnaire should be concerned with specific topics, which must be regarded as relevant by the respondents. The investigator musts clearly state the significance, objectives and aims of the questionnaire either in a separate letter or in the questionnaire itself.
2. Short: It should be short because very lengthy questionnaires often find their way into the waste-basket.
3. Simple and Clear: Directions and wordings of the questionnaire should be simple and clear. Each question should deal with a single idea.
4. Objective: The questions should be objective and should not provide any hints or suggestions regarding a possible answer. Embarrassing questions, presuming questions and hypothetical questions should avoided.
5. Presented in a good order: The questions should be presented in a good order proceeding from general to specific responses or from those showing a favorable attitude to an unfavorable attitude.
6. Attractive: A questionnaire must be attractive in appearance, neatly printed or duplicated and clearly arranged.
7. Arranged properly: In a questionnaire, the order of the individual questions is of great importance because the order tends to influence the validity of the obtained answers as well as the refusal rates. In the beginning the respondent is unsure of himself as well as curious. So, the opening questions should be simple, general, and such as to put the respondent at ease. This has a natural effect of establishing rapport between the investigator and the respondent. No sensitive questions or embarrassing question should be put in the beginning because it is likely to lead to refusal to answer. The questions should move from the general to specific aspect in a logical manner. No break should be given in moving from general to specific questions.

DESIGNATING THE QUESTIONNAIRE.

A Questionnaire should be

• Attractive to look at.
• Brief
• Easy to understand
• Reasonably quick to complete.

Drafting the questions (Some rules)

1. Keeping it brief means not having more than 15-20 questions.
2. Overall research questions should guide in selecting the questions.
3. Don’t just ask questions simply out of general interest.
4. Keep the language simple and consider who will be responding.
5. Keep questions short with no embedded questions.
6. Ensure that questions are clear and unambiguous.
7. The researcher should ask questions that he feels sure the respondents will be able to answer.
8. Avoid asking leading questions.
9. Make sure categories of response make sense.

Types of Questions

1. Open type questions 2. Closed type

Question Order:

          Start with easy questions first (e.g. Male/female) and make sure that any questions that are more controversial appear later when the respondent has already invested so time in the questionnaire. It is often useful to end with an open question that allows the respondent to “have their say” if they feel they need to add something. However, often these questions go unanalyzed because the people setting the questionnaire do not know what to do with them. So there is an ethical issue here.

Design and Layout

• Give the questionnaire a title.
• Ensure that the procedure for completing the questions is clear (that means not too many responses modes).
• Ensure that respondents know how to get back the questionnaire and when.
• Leave reasonable space between questions (cramped questions look bad.)
• Leave space for you to code the responses.
• It may help to divide your questions into sections, possibly with headings for example, “About you.”, “about your school.” “About your science classes”.
• You may wish to write a brief covering letter. Do ensure that it is brief, that it makes clear why you are asking them to complete the questionnaire, what the purpose of your research is and why it is important. This can also include assurances of confidentiality.

Advantages of Questionnaire

1. The questionnaire has great potentialities when it is properly used. If it is eliminated, progress in many areas of education would be greatly handicapped.
2. It is economical way of accumulating information of significance for educators. It is economical in time, effort and cost both for the sender and for the respondent.
3. When the objects of the study are scattered far and wide, it will be a better tool as compared to the tools like interview or observation. It permits a nation-wide or even international coverage. It makes possible contact with many who could not otherwise be reached.
4. It permits group administration and is adaptable to any objectives. It can cover a large group at the same time.
5. It is easy to plan, construct, and administer.
6. Once it has been constructed skillfully, the investigator may ask anybody to administer it on his behalf.
7. It is generally regarded as dependable when used to obtain more readily by means of questionnaire, especially if the respondent is permitted to omit signatures or if specifically assured that his replies will be regarded as confidential.
8. It places less pressure on the subject for immediate response. He can answer it at leisure, whereas interview/observation demands specific fixation of time and situation.
9. It helps in focusing the respondent’s attention on all the significant items. As it is administered in a written form, its standardized instructions for recording responses ensure some uniformity. Questionnaire does not permit much of variation.
10. It may be used as a preliminary tool for conducting an in-depth a depth study later on by any other method.
11. In this method, the responses given by the subjects are available in their own language and version, whereas in tools like interview or observations, responses depend on the way the investigator has recorded them. The written record adds to the validity of responses.

Limitations of Questionnaire

1. Its reliability and validity is low. Its frequent use is a vice and weakness instigating against the   recognition of educational research as a science.
2. Frequently, questionnaire research constitute simply a pooling of ignorance. It is a compilation of the opinions of many persons who do not know the answer.
3. It gives a biased sample. The matter of non-response is always a big question mark.
4. The respondents who return the questionnaires may not constitute a representative section of the entire group. Only more responsible, research minded or those in favor of the issue may choose to respond. Some of the important sections of the group may totally choose to remain silent. This vitiates the final conclusions and findings.
5. If the subject misinterprets a question or gives an incomplete or indefinite response, nothing can be done. As against this, in an interview, there is always the possibility of rephrasing questions for further clarification. The questions can be repeated with adequate elaboration, if needed.
6. Since a questionnaire is more or less rigid in its structure, it is not very helpful in finding information about complex emotional subjects, or about sentiments which people may not like to put in writing. It is only through interview that the investigator can discuss delicate and controversial issues and can dig out the subject’s feelings.
7. Some respondents may not like to put their views on controversial issues in writing. Such views can be drawn out only through interviews.
8. The behaviours, gestures, reactions, emphasis, assertions, and emotions of the respondent remain unnoticed.
9. There are many people who would not like to share any important information unless and until they are impressed about the cause and the personality of the investigator. The questionnaire does not provide any opportunity for the investigator to establish rapport with the subject.
10. Some of the research areas are so delicate, sensitive, intricate, and confidential in nature that it becomes difficult to frame questions on them. It is impossible to put down certain delicate issues in writing.
11. It permits the respondent to modify his answers to earlier questions when he finds that he is contradicting himself while answering some later questions. Thus, his responses may not remain true, factual, honest, and original.
12. The questionnaire cannot be used with illiterate subjects and children.